Sanskrit literature that is
considered to be authoritative by the Hindus can be broadly classified
as six orthodox and four secular categories.
The orthodox section contains
Shruti
That which is heard. This is the direct edict of the gods
as heard by the Vedic seers. The Vedas fall under this category.
Smriti
That which is remembered. These are the law texts, moral
stories and the epics written and remembered. These include Sutras and
Shastras (e.g. Brahma Sutra and Dharma Shastra). Vedangas (Limbs of
Vedas) and Upa-Vedas are also included here.
Puranas and
upa-Puranas
There are eighteen Puranas of Vyasa and fourteen upa-Puranas.
Ithihasas
Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Agamas
Texts of ritual and rites of worship.
Darsahnas
The six philosophical doctrines of salvation.
The secular section has four
categories
Subhashitas
Wise sayings: Pachatantra and Hitopadesha belong to this
category.
Kavyas
Scholarly poetry and prose: Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsha and
Kumarasambhava are examples of poetry and Banabhatta’s works are the
greatest examples of prose literature.
Natakas
Scholarly dramas: Examples are Kalidasa’s Shakunthala and
Vishakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa.
Alankara
Composition of elegance and ornamental language includes such works as
Mammata’s Kavyaprakasha and Jagannatha’s Rasagangadhara.
The heterodox literatures
are those that did not view Vedas as authoritative.
These are Buddhist, Jaina
and Charvaka systems.
Orthodox
Scriptures
Shruti
Vedas are said to be the
oldest human literature available. Though there seems to be a long
interval between the composition and compilation of the Vedas, there is
evidence to suggest that these Vedas, as we know it today was composed
around 1500 hundred years before Christ. The English language cognate of
the word Vedas is ‘Wise’. Because many thinkers composed the Vedas over
generations, one can see the transformation of the thought from the
earlier polytheistic religion to the later monistic philosophy. The Rig
Veda refers to the various deities of the natural phenomena (sun, wind,
fire, storm etc.). The Upanishads, which were written later by
philosophical thinkers, refers to a monistic theory of Supreme World Soul,
namely Brahman. Hinduism, remarkably, has synthesized the various
paradoxes of the Vedas into a single religion that is practiced today.
The Vedas contain four main parts: Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva.
Each Veda has four different parts namely, Samhita (hymns),
Brahmana (significance of the hymns), Aranyaka (interpretation)
and Vedanta (Upanishad – the metaphysical dialogue).
The Rig Veda is a collection of hymns praising the gods and
glorifying the conquests and the heroics of the aristocratic Aryan cult.
There are 1017 hymns in the Rig Veda and these are arranged in ten
mandalas or circles. Second to seventh are the oldest and the tenth is the
most recent.
Sama Vedais a collection of certain melodious verses of Rig Veda for the purpose of ceremonial rituals and is not of
much importance for philosophical purposes. It is the musical melodies of
the passages of Rig Veda used in the ceremonial sacrifices. The
Yajur Veda contains sacrificial formulae in prose and verse to be
pronounced by the priest. It has two sections, namely White and Black, the
latter being more obscure in its meaning. It spells out proper procedures
for construction of the altar for ceremonial sacrifices and other rituals.
The horse sacrifice, soma sacrifice, agricultural rituals and coronation
of kings follow a ceremonial ritual that are explained in the Yajur
Veda, mainly for the Brahmin class to follow and implement. It
also is philosophically unimportant.
The Atharva Veda consists of mainly magical spells and
incantations in verse. In the section called the Bheshanjani, cures
using herbs for diseases such as fever, jaundice, dropsy and leprosy are
enumerated. Bewitching spells and black magical spells are in the
Abhichara section. Atharva Veda was not originally accepted as
part of the Shruti Vedas. They seem to contain many popular beliefs
and customs practiced by the non-Aryan locals that were later accepted by
the aristocracy and the priestly class. Esoteric knowledge dealing with
Yantra, Tantra and Mantra are detailed. Yantra is the machine, namely the
human body, Mantra is the formula and Tantra is the technique of applying
the formulae to the machine to get the best results. The beginning of
Indian medical sciences can be found in the Atharva Veda.
The hymns of the Vedas that are in the form of poetry are called
Samhitas. A lengthy appendix of detailed instructions called
‘Brahmanas’ is part of the Vedas. Brahmanas, written in prose, are
commentaries on the four Vedas. They also explain and guide the practices
of the customs and sacrifices, often with mythical stories. The
Brahmanas not only give us a glimpse of the social customs of the
period but also serve as a transition from the sacrificial Vedas to the
more mystical Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
The Upanishads and the Aranyakas (forest-books) are in turn
appendices to the massive Brahmanas. Aranyakas were
doctrines meant for sages to study in the forests along with their
students. They give insight into early speculation and intellectual
discussions that are later seen in more detail in the Upanishads. The
concept of the Brahman as the Supreme Being and the soul’s (Atman)
desire to be immortal is first speculated in the Aranyaka
literature. Upanishads are divided into two groups, early and late. Early
Upanishads were around the time of Buddha in the sixth century before the
Christian era. The late Upanishads are from a period after Buddha. The
very essence of spirituality of the Vedas is the Upanishads and Vedanta.
The distinction between the two is that the Upanishad is the text and
Vedanta is the philosophy.
While there are numerous Upanishads (1180 to be exact), 108 of them are
considered genuine. Isha, Kena, Katha, Mundaka, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka and Kaushitaki-Brahmana are
considered to be the most significant Early Upanishads. The late
Upanishads include Shvetashvatara, Prashna, Mandukya and
Mahanarayana. Only these thirteen Upanishads and Maitri
Upanishads are considered to be Vedic and important because they have been
commented (bhashya) upon by the major teachers (acharyas) of
various traditions. Other less important Upanishads are Sabla, Jabala,
Paingala (a converswation between Yajnavalkya and his pupil Paingala)
and Kaivalya Upanishad.
Brahma Sutra of Badarayana forms the basis of Vedanta. The
doctrines of Vedanta were based on the Upanishads, and gave logical and
organized form to their mystical speculations. It maintained that
everything in the universe, souls and matter alike, was produced from
God’s own essence. Vedanta is based on the study of Upanishads, Brahma
Sutra and The Bhagavad-Gita (collectively called Prasthana-Traya).
The three main systems of Vedanta are Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and
Dvaita. The philosophy of Vedanta will be discussed later. A
summary of the important Upanishads and the Indian philosophy, as
commented by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan can be referred to in the
supplement, at the end of this article.
As already mentioned, the Vedas did not develop as a single document. In
its current known form, it perhaps is an accumulation of many centuries of
work by many. Yajur Veda, e.g. was compiled a century or two after
Rig Veda. The Vedas are timeless and without an author. The
Samhita is to be mastered by the Brahmacharis, the Brhamanas
are meant for the householders (grahasthashramis), the Aranyakas,
which give philosophical interpretations of the Vedas, are intended for
Vanaprasthas prior to taking the last stage of Sanyasa ashram.
The Upanishads with their sublime, profound, lofty and soul-stirring
knowledge help the Sanyasi to gather the knowledge necessary to
realize Brahman.
Smriti
The texts of the Smriti
are derived from the Vedas and are hence authentic. Sutras
(literally means thread) are manual of instructions in the form of brief
aphorisms. Collectively called as Kalpa Sutras they are subdivided
into three main Sutras. Srauta Sutras are manuals explaining
the scriptures. Grahya Sutras deal with domestic religious
ceremonies. Dharma Sutras are manuals of human conduct, the
most important of these being attributed to sages Gautama, Baudhayana,
Vasishta and Apastamba. Later several prose Sutrsas that are now
lost to us were expanded in the form of verses and came to be known as
Dharma Shastrsas. The most famous of these Shastras is the
Manuva Dharma Shastra of Manu (also called as Manu-Smriti).
Others are Smritis of Yajnavalkya and Parasara. Brahma Sutras were
written by Badarayana to harmonize the contradictory statements found in
the Upanishads and present a uniform higher perception.
In addition there are Vedangas and Upavedas classified under
Smriti literature. Vedangas are texts, which augment the
Vedas (Limbs of the Vedas). They are necessary for the proper
understanding of the Vedas. There are six vedangas namely Siksha
Valli (phonetics and pronunciation-from Taittiriya Upanishad),
Jyotisha (astronomy, astrology), Kalpa (performance of
sacrifice), Nirukti (etymology), Chandas (prosody), and
Vyakarana (grammar). Jyotisha is the most famous among them.
They are part of the first section (called Valli) of the
Taittiriya Upanishads in the Yajur Veda. There are four
upavedas (sub-Vedas) namely, Dhanur-veda (military science from
the Yajur Veda), Sthapatya-veda (science of construction and
mechanics, attached to Atharva Veda), Gandharva-veda (arts
and music attached to Sama Veda), and Ayur-veda. Ayurveda,
also to be found in Atharva Veda deals with health, medicine, is
probably the most popular of the upavedas.
Puranas and Upa-Puranas
The eighteen Mahapuranas
are divided into three main groups, namely Brahma Puranas, Vaishnava
Puranas and Shaiva Puranas, each containing six texts.
Brhama Puranas contains Bramha,
Brahmanda, Brahma Vaivarta, Markandeya (Devi-mahatmya, Chandi Purana),
Bhaivishya and Vamana Puranas. The Vaishnava Puranas are Vishnu, Naradiya,
Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma and Varaha Puranas. The Shaiva Puranas include
Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Vayu, Skanda and Agni Puranas. Of these Bhagavata
and Vishnu Puranas are the most famous. Puranas were created to influence
the minds of common man and instill devotion in him with stories of myths
and legends of kings and saints. They also make interesting reading and
are very popular. There are eighteen upa-Puranas (sub-Puranas) some
of which are Surya, Narasimha, Ganesha, Brihannaradiya and Devi-Bhagavata.
Ithihasa
Ithihasatexts are the famous epics Mahabharata and Valmiki-Ramayana.
Less well-known Ithihasa texts are Yogavasistha and Harivamsha. Included
in the Mahabharata is the famous Bhagavad-Gita, the epitome of Hindu
philosophy. It is also referred to as Gito-Upanishad.
Agamas
Agamas are texts of rituals and rites in the worship of
gods. The Agamas include Mantra, Tantra and Yantras. These are treatises
that explain the external, worship of God in the idol, temple etc. The
Agamas are divided into three sections namely Vaishnava, Shaiva and
Shakta respectively glorifying Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti (Devi). The
Agamas do not derive their authenticity from the Vedas but are not
antagonistic to them. However, they are not considered as Smriti texts.
Darshana
Darshana texts
are also called Veda Upangas. There are six schools of philosophy based on
the Vedas. They are in the form of short aphorisms and a Rishi is credited
with having written each school. Gautama’s Nyaya, Kanada’s
Vaisheshika, Kapila’s Sankhya, Patanjali’s yoga,
Jaimini’s Purva Mimamsa and Badarayana’s Vedanta-Sutra,
(also called as Brahma Sutra or Uttara Mimamsa) are the six
doctrines. These are collectively called as Shad-darshana. Nyaya
and Vaisheshika literatures together are also classified under the
sub heading Tarka Shastra. While Agama literature is
theological, the Darshana literature is philosophical and logical.
The Ithihasa and Puranas are for the masses appealing to
their hearts whereas the Darshanas are for the scholars appealing
to their intellects.
Secular Scriptures
There are also Prakarana Granthas. These are considered to be
primers or an introduction for spiritual studies. Among them are Atma
Bodha, and Bhaja Govindam [also known as Moha Mudhgara].
Besides the scriptures, there are stotra-s and bhajans
(devotional songs and hymns) Among the numerous stotras; Sahasranamams
(1008 names of each deity) are very famous. Secular literatures include
Subhashitas that are wise sayings, Kavyas that are scholarly
compositions of poetry. Kavyas written based on the Ithihasa
include Meghaduta, Shakuntala and Raghuvamsha by
Kalidasa.
Natakas that are scholarly dramas and Alankara Granthas that
are grand compositions of great eloquence and elegance containing
ornamental language are also classified as secular literature. The
Shrutis are considered to be the foundation of Sanatana Dharma and
Hindu Dharma whereas the Smritis form the walls and the
Ithihasas and Puranas are the buttresses or supports.
All of these scriptures show three definite pathways to follow in the
quest of spirituality. They are Karma-kanda (through service)
using the Vedangas, Upasana-kanda (through rituals) using the
Agamas and Jnana-kanda (through knowledge) studying of the
Upanishads. The purpose of the Hindu scriptures is to remove ignorance and
make man like God and one with Him. In the Vedas, Samhitas and
Brahmanas mainly make up the sacrifices and rituals of the Karma-kanda,
whereas the Aranyakas and the Upanishads that deal with knowledge
are the Jnana-kanda texts.
Heterodox Literature
The Charvaka, Jaina and Buddhist systems did not respect the
authority of the Vedas and are called heterodox systems. The original
Charvaka literature on materialism called Brhaspati Sutra (600
B.C.E.) is lost. Glimpses of the doctrine called Lokayat can be
obtained from other rival literature of the time, especially Buddhist
literature. Madhvacharya in the 14th century summarized the system
in Sarvadarshanasamgrha. Shankara’s Sarvasiddhantasamgrha
also discusses the system of Charvaka. The prominence of the materialistic
movement can be seen in the famous ancient drama, Prabodha-chandrodaya.
The most authentic text of the school is in Tattvopaplavasimha.
Significant Jaina literature can be seen in Sri. Umasvati Acharya’s
Tattvarthadhigama Sutra (after 3rd century C.E.). Mallisena’s
Syadvadamanjeri discusses the celebrated Jaina doctrines of
Syadvada and Saptabhangi. During the course of development of
Buddhism many philosophical schools had their impact on the religion.
Chief philosophies of Hinayana are the Vaibhashika or direct
realism and Sautrantika or indirect realism. The philosophy of
Yogachara or idealism and Madhyamika or relativism influenced
the Mahayana school. Nagarjuna’s (2nd century) Vimshaka and
Madhayamika-sutra and Vasubandhu’s Vimshatika and Trimshika
form the basis of Mahayana philosophy.
Buddha encouraged his monks to propagate his teachings. After his death
Buddhist canon was formulated and transmitted by oral tradition. Many
versions were written down several centuries later (2nd and 1st century
B.C.E.). The main divisions, called Pitakas (baskets), are
Vinaya or monistic rules, the Sutra (in Pali-Sutta, the most
important Pitaka) or discourses of Buddha and Abhidharma (in
Pali-Abhidhamma) or scholastic metaphysics. Dhammapada (Path
of Virtue) is the most famous text of Hinayana Buddhism, perhaps
with the exception of Sutta Pitaka. It is an anthology of verses
that is part of the Theravada Pali canon scriptures known as
Khuddaka Nikaya and contains 423 verses. In addition there are the
Jataka, which are stories about Buddha in his previous births, many of
which are non-Buddhist in origin. A complete Indian version of the canon
is that of the Sri Lanka Theravada School, in Pali language written in
29-17 B.C.E. The Chinese translated the Mahayana writings over a period of
thousand years, beginning 1st century C.E. Taisho Daizokyo is a massive 45
volumes of thousand pages each compiled between 1922 and 1933. Tibetan
translations began around 7th century C.E. Buddhist historian Busto
(1290-1364) translated into two volumes. The first dealt with translation
of Buddha’s words called Kanjur and the second was translation of the
treatises called Tanjur. These together form 320 volumes in Tibetan
script, almost a literal, word for word translation of the original
Sanskrit version that is now lost.
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