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History of India
A Gap in Puranic
History Bridged
Despite the
casual tossing away of Puranic accounts by Indologists prejudiced
by western historicism, the fact remains that these texts provide a
remarkably detailed account of dynasties of rulers along with a picture
of social conditions that need to be included in any marshalling of
facts relating to ancient India.
A major puzzle that has faced scholars in this area is the absence of
references to invasions by Greeks and Scythians whose historicity is
substantiated through other sources. In the first year of the new
millennium part of this gap has been covered thanks to the invaluable
research of Dr. James Mitchiner, till recently the British Deputy High
Commissioner in Kolkata. The Vriddha Gargiya Jyotisha contains
just two chapters entitled “Yuga Purana” consisting of 115
shlokas referring to both Indo-Greeks and Indo-Scythians. The second
edition of Mitchiner’s critical edition (published by The Asiatic
Society) collates 16 manuscripts to present the text with an English
translation and a lengthy discussion that provides fascinating new data.
In this Purana, related by Shiva in response to Skanda’s queries, there
is no mention of the Manvantara tradition, of Kalki, or of Abhiras that
occur in Mahabharata when it speaks of the coming of Kali Yuga in
terms taken from the Vayu Purana. The Abhira reference flags the
epic passage as not earlier than 250 A.D. The Yuga Purana
predates at least this part of the epic and also the Matsya Purana
which quotes from the Gargiya Jyotisha. Unlike other Puranas
that record only names of dynasties of Kali Yuga, it provides accounts
of reigns of specific kings. It is also the only text to speak of 12
regions (mandalas) that are peopled after the end of the yuga. It
is unique in not terming these survivors as mlechchas. Indeed,
that term is used for only a single individual, the mysterious Amrata,
destroyer of castes, red-eyed and red-clothed, whom Mitichiner
identifies with Kharavela. He looted the Magadhan capital after the
Shaka incursion around 60 B.C. and just before the end of the Kali Yuga
around mid 1st century B.C. This Purana completely ignores the
Ramayana and, even when mentioning Parashurama and Keshava, knows
nothing of avatarahood. On this basis it can be dated as earlier than
all the Puranas and both epics.
King Simuka Satavahana, named in inscriptions, is identical with Sishuka
or Sindhuka of the Puranas, founder of the Andhra dynasty (that is how
the Satavahanas are referred to in the Puranas). He is known to Jain
accounts as Gadabhilla, father of Vikrama, who ruled over Pratishthan
and Malwa. The Yuga Purana knows him as Satuvara, an oppressive
ruler, just before the Shakas invaded around 60 B.C. They were routed by
Shri Shatakarni, mentioned in the Puranas and the Sanchi inscription,
who is the Yuga Purana’s “Shata”, an abbreviation of the full
name “Shri Sata” that occurs on coins from Ujjain. The era of 58 B.C. is
linked to this feat, although it was founded by the Shaka king Azes and
brought into use from about 150 A.D. by the Malavas of Ujjain referring
to it as their Krita era (cf. the Mandasor inscription). Around 750 A.D.
it came to be known as the Vikrama era.
Mitchiner convincingly argues that Shri Shatakarni was the king later
renowned as “Vikrama”, the valorous one. Similarly, after defeating the
Shakas, Gautamiputra Shatakarni (107-131 A.D.) took the same epithet.
After Shri Shatakarni’s reign, however, Malwa was lost to the
Satavahanas. This is reflected in the legends of the rivalry between
Vikrama in Ujjain and Satavahana/Shalivahana in Pratishthan. Later the
title “Vikrama” was assumed by Chandra Gupta II after defeating the
Shakas, and subsequently by several Chalukya rulers.
An interesting aspect of Yuga Purana is its condemnation of
Bhikshukas (beggars) clad in bark-cloth, having matted hair and
those who dress in red (Buddhist ascetics). It favours active life and
despises those who relax as householders. There is strong opposition to
Shudras having taken over performance of yajnas. An interesting
social commentary is provided in its deploring the excessive female
population because of which men see “an extraordinary sight. Women will
do the ploughing …(they will be) warriors with bows due to the scarcity
of men. Women will trade in the villages and towns, while men will be at
ease as householders dressed in red.”
There is indication of the existence of a sect information about which
is lost in the dark backward and abysm of time. Shalishuka of
Pataliputra— great grandson of Ashoka—“of righteous words but
unrighteous conduct,” is said to have helped his elder brother, renowned
as Sadhuketa (banner of ascetics), establish a righteous person named
Vijaya. This seems to be a reference to a Jain religious leader as
“sadhu” was a term particularly used for Jain ascetics and Shalishuka’s
father Samprati was a patron of Jainism. Like the other Puranas, the
Yuga Purana condemns the patronage of non-Brahmanical sects by the
Maurya kings.
It links the end of each Yuga to a great battle: Tarakasura’s at the end
of Krita Yuga; Parashurama’s 21 battles at the end of Treta Yuga (there
is no mention of Dasharathi Rama); and the Pandavas’ at the close of
Dvapara. The name “Bharata” or “Mahabharata” is not applied to this war
although Keshava-Vasudeva with four arms is mentioned as appearing to
destroy creatures. For the Yuga Purana the end of Kali Yuga comes
with the invasion of the Shakas, followed by drought, famine and the
exodus of survivors to 12 mandalas. The founding of Pushpapura (Pataliputra)
is a crucial event for this Purana and it celebrates Udayin (Udayan) for
this, calling him the scion of Shishunaga. According to most Buddhist,
Jain and Brahmanical texts, he was Ajatshatru’s successor around 460
B.C.
The Yavanas (Greeks) are stated to have demolished the mud walls of
Kusumadhvaja (Pataliputra) after approaching Saketa (Ayodhya) with
Panchalas and Mathuras, following which there is anarchy. It goes on to
say that the Yavanas will not remain here but are drawn away by war in
their own realm. After their departure there will be seven great kings
of Saketa. Thereafter, a mighty Shaka king raids Pushpanama (Pataliputra)
and kills a quarter of the population including all the youngest men but
is slain by the Kalinga king Shata and a group of Sabalas (Savaras). In
shloka 49 there is a mysterious reference to the battle of wooden
weapons that Mitchiner has not glossed. In a personal communication he
has stated " The expression used is "shastra-druma-mahayuddham". "Druma"
means literally 'a tree'; it is used e.g. by Yaska in the sense of
'wooden' in the expression "druma-maya". "Shastra" is literally a sword,
knife or dagger, and is often used to denote any weapon, tool or
instrument. So the overall meaning of this phrase could indeed mean a
kind of caber-tossing event; or it could perhaps denote the use of
wooden weapons such as bows, arrows, wooden javelins/spears and so
forth." Patanjali mentions Saketa and Madhyamika being besieged by the
Yavana. A series of Indo-Greek coins have been found at Dewas near
Ujjain, supporting the Yavana presence in Malwa. The Besnagar Garuda
pillar inscription of Yavana Heliodorus as an envoy from Taxila of king
Antialkidas is dated to around 140 B.C. Kharavela’s inscription in
Hathigumpha mentions his attacking Rajagriha and sending the Yavana king
Dimita (Demetrios) packing to Mathura, showing a Greek presence in
Magadha around the same time. Panchala “Mitra” coins have been found at
Pataliputra and names ending with “mitra” in inscriptions at Bodh Gaya.
All these substantiate the Yuga Purana’s account of a joint
expedition of Yavanas, Panchalas and Mathuras. Mitichiner suggests that
this occurred around 190 B.C. between the reigns of Shalishuka Maurya
(c. 200 B.C.) and Pushyamitra Sunga (c. 187 B.C.) when the Indo-Greek
king was either Euthydemos (230-190 B.C.) or Demetrios (205-190 B.C. as
co-regent and 190-171 as king). The Yavanas were called away by some
attack on the border such as the Antiochus III’s two year long siege of
Euthydemos in Balkh , or the seccession of Sogdiana from Bactria around
190 B.C. This is also when the Maurya dynasty was extinguished by
Pushyamitra.
All that remains is to explain the absence of any reference to
Alexander’s invasion, about which all Puranas are silent. K.D. Sethna (Amal
Kiran) made a valiant effort to plug this gap in his Ancient India in
a New Light. But that is a different story.
–
Pradip Bhattacharya
March 14, 2004
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